Art in the Country Turkey What Type of Art Do Turkish People Value
Turkey
Orientation
Identification. The English word "Turkish" comes from the ancient Turkish give-and-take Türk , which can exist used as an adjective or a name. In Turkish, the proper name of the land is Türkiye . After decades of nationalistic indoctrination, near citizens self-identify every bit Turks regardless of ethnic background. Some of the major not-Turkish ethnic groups—the Kurds in the southeast, the Arabs in the due south, the Laz of the western Black Sea coast, and the Georgians in the northeast and northwest—express double identities.
Location and Geography. Turkey occupies Asia Minor and a small portion of Europe. Its area is 301,382 square miles (814,578 square kilometers). It is bounded on the w by the Aegean Sea; on the northwest by the Sea of Marmara, Greece, and Bulgaria; on the north by the Black Sea; on the east by Georgia, Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Iran; and on the south by Iraq, Syria, and the Mediterranean. Although Istanbul (formerly Constantinople) is the major city and was the capital of the Ottoman Empire, the showtime president—Mustafa Kemal Atatürk—chose Ankara, an interior Anatolian city, as the capital in 1923. Militarily Ankara was less exposed and more hands dedicated than Istanbul. The choice as well symbolized Atatürk'due south policy of nationalism, because Ankara was more Turkish and less cosmopolitan than the quondam capital.
Turkey has 4,454 miles of coastline. The interior consists of mountains, hills, valleys, and a high cardinal plateau. The western coastal plains are mostly more densely populated and industrial than are the central and eastern regions, except for Ankara on the fundamental Anatolian plateau. Considering Asia Minor had been home to Lydians, Hittites, Greeks, Romans, Byzantines, Seljuks, and Ottomans over the centuries, information technology is dotted with historic monuments.
Physiographically, the country may be divided into five regions. The Blackness Sea region has a moderate climate and higher than boilerplate rainfall. It is dominated past the Pontic mountain range. The west is noted for agriculture, including grains, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and tobacco. In the more humid east, the mountains leave a narrow littoral plain rarely exceeding 20 miles wide. The Black Sea peoples settled and farmed the valleys and narrow alluvial fans of the area's rivers, developing a grade of steep gradient agriculture to grow vegetables and fruits. Tea, the major cash ingather, did not become popular until the 1960s. Some villagers combined gardening with transhumant pastoralism, which involves grazing small herds of sheep, goats, and cattle on the lowlands in the wintertime and in the high Pontic pastures in the summer.
Until recently, the rugged topography limited agriculture, and culling land-based industries were virtually absent. Thus, many western Black Sea men sought work outside the region in the navy and merchant marine or in major cities, later returning home to retire. While the men worked away, the women kept up the home, farmed the country, and cared for the livestock.
The fundamental Anatolian plateau region is dotted with mountains and denuded of copse. It has a semi-arid climate with high temperatures in summer and low ones in winter. Villagers engage in animal husbandry and cultivate wheat, barley, and carbohydrate beets. Areas unsuited for cultivation are used to graze large herds of sheep, cattle, and goats.
Eastern Anatolia is the nearly mountainous, remote, undeveloped, and sparsely populated region. Its summit and cold temperatures make information technology less suitable for crop tillage than the rest of Anatolia. Historically, its people engaged predominantly in animal husbandry, particularly transhumant nomadism with herds of sheep, cattle, and
Turkey
goats. A tribal social organization survived longer in this area among the Turkish and Kurdish peoples.
The Mediterranean coastal region is lined past the Taurus Mountains. It has a Mediterranean climate with hot, dry summers and mild, humid winters. The eastern part, effectually Mersin and Adana, is known for extensive cotton production by wealthy landowners. Mersin is an important seaport and oilrefining centre. The western region is noted for citrus and banana groves. Seminomadic peoples traditionally utilized the Taurus Mountains to graze sheep, goats, cattle, and camels. Women among the Turkish Yürük pastoralists made woolen kilims, rugs, and saddlebags. Tourism is now a major manufacture.
The Aegean region too has a Mediterranean climate. It contains rich valleys and alluvial plains as well as rolling hills and mountains. A wide variety of crops are produced, including citrus fruits, olives, nuts, sunflowers, tobacco, sugar beets, grains, fruits, and vegetables. The surface area contains most of Turkey's prosperous small farmers and food-processing plants. Izmir is the region'southward major commercial and industrial center; it is the tertiary largest city and 2nd major port.
The Marmara–Istanbul region, a crossroads of Europe and Asia, is the most densely settled, commercial, industrial, and touristic region. Information technology has a moderate climate, rich soil, and all-encompassing coastlines. Equally a result of mod development, it has the highest per centum of the population engaged in nonagricultural pursuits of whatever region in the country. Istanbul, the largest and most cosmopolitan city, leads the state in commerce, aircraft, fashion, literature, arts, and entertainment. Over the decades, it has attracted a steady stream of migrants from all parts of the country.
Census. The annual population increase fell to one.vi per centum in 1998 after decades of annual growth over 2.5 pct. The 1998 population was estimated at 64,566,511, with 65 percent of the people living in urban areas and 35 percent in some thirty-five thousand villages. Turkey does non categorize its population past ethnicity, and the sizes of ethnic groups must be estimated. There are at to the lowest degree thirty-v non-Turkish ethnic groups, including other Turkic peoples who speak different Turkic languages, such as the Uygurs, Kirgiz, Kazaks, Uzbeks, Balkar, and Azerbaijanis. Those who speak non-Turkic languages include Kurds, Armenians, Greeks, Circassians, Georgians, Laz, Arabs, Rom (Gypsies), Ossetes, Albanians, and Chechens. The Kurds are the largest of these groups, probably numbering over ten million. The next largest may be the Arabs concentrated along the Syrian edge at about one million and the Laz of the Eastern Black Ocean coastal region, who may number about three hundred thousand.
Linguistic Amalgamation. The Turks originated in inner Asia. Their language belongs to the Altaic family. The primeval evidence of Turkish writing dates to eighth-century C.Eastward. runic inscriptions on steles forth the Orkhon River most present-day Ulan Bator, Mongolia. The language was influenced by Farsi and Arabic after the ninth century, when Turks began moving into the Middle E and converting to Islam. After the establishment of the Turkish Republic, many Arabic and Persian words were replaced with words derived from aboriginal Turkish. Every bit part of Atatürk'due south Turkification plan, all Muslim citizens were legally required to speak and write in Turkish. Until 1991, publications, radio broadcasts, and public speaking in many non-Turkish languages were legally prohibited. Today the vast bulk of young people speak merely Turkish. However, most Kurds raised in southeastern Turkey speak Kurdish as well as Turkish.
History and Ethnic Relations
Emergence of the Nation. Nowadays-day Turkey was founded in 1923 as an offspring of the multiethnic and multilingual Ottoman Empire, which existed betwixt the fourteenth and early twentieth centuries and embraced much of the Middle East along with parts of southeastern Europe and North Africa in the sixteenth century. In the nineteenth century, when the Balkans and the Trans-Caspian regions were separated from the empire, many non-Turkish Ottoman citizens fled or migrated to Anatolia and Turkish Thrace to resettle.
With the Ottoman Empire'south demise in World War I, the heartland of the quondam empire—Istanbul and Asia Minor—was reconstituted as the Republic of Turkey under the leadership of Mustafa Kemal (afterwards called Mustafa Kemal Atatürk). To make Turkey a mod, Western-style, secular nation-state, Atatürk disestablished Islam as the land religion, adopted Western legal codes, and established a compulsory secular educational system in which all young Muslim citizens, regardless of ethnicity, were taught that they were ethnically Turkish and citizens of a Turkish nation-land. Afterwards centuries of intermarriage with Mediterranean and Balkan peoples and the assimilation of those peoples into the Ottoman Empire and the Turkish state, the vast majority of today's Turks physically resemble southern Europeans rather than key Asiatics.
National Identity. The government founded and supported historical and linguistic societies that researched and, if necessary, invented a glorious Turkish past that would instill pride in the country's citizens. The official policy of Turkish nationalistic indoctrination has been largely effective. Nigh citizens, regardless of their non-Turkish ancestry, cocky-identify as Turks both ethnically and nationally, with the exception of some Kurds.
Ethnic Relations. After the mail service-World War I Treaty of Laussane, only Christian Armenians, Orthodox Greeks, and Jews were immune to maintain their religious and educational institutions. Since 1999, the but non-Turkish languages taught in public schools have been western European languages and Standard arabic.
About half the Kurds reside in southeastern Turkey, their traditional homeland. Almost of those in other regions have become Turkified though instruction, work, military service, and intermarriage. Since the 1970s, a growing number of Kurds have rediscovered their non-Turkish roots, based in function on Kurdish, an Indo-European linguistic communication related to Farsi.
Although the use of Kurdish in public speech and impress has been legal since 1991, prosecutors often arrest Kurdish speakers and confiscate Kurdish publications under the Anti-Terror Police, which prohibits the broadcasting of separatist propaganda. Prosecutors also have used other parts of the criminal code to limit ethnic expression. As of 1999, Kurdish-language broadcasts remained illegal. The Sanliurfa (southeastern Turkey) co-operative of the Mesopotamian Cultural Middle, a corporation established to promote the Kurdish language and culture, was banned in 1997 past the provincial governor. In 1997, the governor'southward role in Istanbul refused the Kurdish Civilization and Research Foundation permission to offer Kurdish-linguistic communication classes.
Some Kurds are demanding cultural rights and even independence or regional autonomy for the southeast. Since 1984, the Kurdish Workers Party (PKK), a secessionist and sometimes terrorist organization, has been fighting the Turkish military in that area. Up to March 1999, about xxx thou
Workers from the Dobag Project launder a traditional manus-knotted carpet. Turkish carpets are prized for their quality and intricate design.
people, mostly PKK members, had been killed in the fighting. The Turkish military'south deportment have engendered back up for the PKK, which occasionally carries out cross-edge raids from northern Iraq. Turkish armed forces accept compelled the evacuation of over a million civilians from the southeast and destroyed over two thousand villages.
In June 2000, a Turkish court convicted Abdullah Ocalan, the leader of the PKK, of murder and sentenced him to death. Kurds in Turkey, Europe, and other countries demonstrated in support of him. Ocalan has appealed the sentence to the European Court of Human Rights. Should Turkey impose the death sentence on Ocalan, its relations with its Kurdish citizens will become severely strained.
In contempo years, Georgians, Circassians, and Laz have been attempting to revive their non-Turkish languages and cultural traditions within the limits allowed by Turkish law. In the early 1990s, a group of Georgian Turks began publishing Çveneburi ,a cultural journal devoted to Georgian poetry, literature, and folklore. These peoples consider themselves Muslims and Turkish citizens with non-Turkish Ottoman ancestries.
The vast bulk of citizens, nonetheless, share a common Turkish culture with some regional, urban–rural, social form, and indigenous variations. There has been a good deal of intermarriage, especially amidst Sunni Muslims with different ethnic backgrounds. The state accepts all citizens as Turks. There are no official legal, educational, or employment disabilities associated with ethnicity and no system of ethnic identity cards.
Turkey has expressed concern for the treatment of Turkic peoples in neighboring countries, such as Bulgaria, Iraq, and Islamic republic of iran. Still, Turkey is concerned primarily with the rights of Turks in Europe. Turkey is an associate member of the Eu. Since the 1960s, millions of its citizens have immigrated to western European countries to work, and just a minor percentage have received European citizenship. Consequently, Turkey has about three meg citizens living in Europe.
For Ankara, this overseas workforce has been a mixed blessing. While many send back hard currency to their relatives, many are exposed to political and religious ideas that are prohibited in Turkey. For case, about 20 to 25 per centum of Turkish citizens in Europe are Kurds; many were non enlightened of their indigenous roots until they were educated by Kurdish nationalists in that location. Kurdish nationalists have also won the sympathy of many Europeans. The forms of cultural suppression exercised by the Turkish government violate the European Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms, a treaty that Ankara has ratified and is obligated to respect.
Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space. Architecture and the use of infinite have been influenced past economical factors, political ideology, surroundings, tradition, and foreign ideas. Ottoman architecture with its Byzantine and Islamic elements represented a clear cultural expression of the imperial by. Leaders of the new republic wanted a dissimilar architecture that would proclaim their new vision of a Western, secular nation-state. I goal of the commonwealth was to catch up with the fabric culture and technology of the West. Hence, they turned to western Europe to help create a new majuscule in Ankara.
Ankara represented a tabula rasa on which a new Turkish order could be constructed. In the early 1920s, it was an insignificant town of xx,000 people, with narrow winding streets and simple mud-brick houses. During the early on years of the commonwealth, Ankara was transformed with monumental government buildings symbolizing the ambitions and power of the new state.
Although some early on edifice designs maintained a nostalgic association with the Ottoman by, mod architects and government officials regarded that style equally inappropriate. Contemporary architectural styles, inspired by Europe, began to supervene upon Ottoman revivalism in institutional building after 1927. In the late 1920s and early 1930s in part as a result of an economic crisis, the government favored drab forms of international architecture influenced past the Bauhaus schoolhouse.
In the pre–World War II period, the monumental official architecture of the High german and Italian regimes became dominant. Ankara's K National Associates edifice (1938–1960) manifested the spirit of National Socialist architecture. In the expanse of housing, a "Republican Suburbia" consisting of highly paid military and noncombatant officials played an important role in the acceptance of modern architecture. Western buildings with indoor plumbing and electricity fit their search for a contemporary lifestyle without ties to the past.
Subsequently World War 2, the International Style became more common. Its site plans were typified by functional geometric elements, and its building facades employed grid systems. The Istanbul Hilton Hotel (1952) became an influential and highly copied case of this manner.
In the 1960s, the Bauhaus school with its emphasis on mass production influenced the construction of middle-class urban housing in Ankara and some other cities. Turkey'due south showtime skyscraper, a commercial function building, was constructed in 1959 in Ankara. Since that time, mod skyscrapers and high-rise regime, commercial, and apartment buildings have transformed nearly major cities. Since the 1950s, modern urban centers have been ringed past expanding squatter settlements ( gecekondus )of substandard housing constructed quickly by peasants from rural areas. Today between fifty and threescore percentage of Turkey'southward urban population consists of gecekondu residents.
Housing styles in small towns and villages are determined by tradition, family unit structure, environment, local building materials, and income. At that place is considerable variety in external appearance past region.
Most homes are divided in a selamlîk (a public reception room) and a harem (individual family unit quarters). In traditional households, male guests are bars to the selamlîk , where they converse with the male members of the household, while women stay in the harem . Many traditional homes as well have an enclosed garden or courtyard where females tin perform some of their domestic duties and chat with neighbors.
In small-scale towns and villages, males dominate public space while females boss the private space of the home. In the mosque, females pray in an area apart from and outside the view of males. Information technology is not uncommon for pic theaters, restaurants, beaches, and public parks to have a "bachelors" department for males and a "family unit" section for families and single females. In public transportation conveyances, information technology is non considered proper for a male person to take a seat next to an unrelated female. In recent years, many of these restrictions take been eased in major cities, simply coffeehouses and some confined remain exclusively male person domains.
Nutrient and Economy
Food in Daily Life. Turkish cuisine includes many different stews of vegetables and meat (lamb and beefiness primarily); borek , kebab , and dolma dishes; and a sourdough bread eaten with almost every meal. Borek is a pastry made of many thin layers of dough interspersed with cheese, spinach, and/or basis meat. Kebab is the common give-and-take for meat roasted in pieces or slices on a skewer or as meatballs on a grill. Dolma is the generic name for dishes made of vegetables (e.yard., tomatoes and peppers) and leaves (e.one thousand., grape, cabbage, and eggplant) that are stuffed with or wrapped effectually rice or bulgur pilaf,
The Lycian Stone Tombs of Myra, Turkey.
basis meat, and spices. Turks are particularly addicted of eggplant.
In the wintertime, many Turks eat a breakfast of bread with hot soup. In the warmer seasons, they commonly swallow bread and jam, hard- or soft-boiled eggs, a white cheese made from sheep'south milk, salty olives, and warm milk or hot tea with milk. A typical apex repast consists of vegetable and meat stew with a side dish of rice or bulgar pilaf and salad, with fruit for desert. Borek or dolma may substitute for the stew. Sweetness deserts, such as baklava, are served on special occasions. The evening meal is unremarkably lighter, consisting of leftovers from noon or a kebab with salad. Ordinarily, only water is drunk with the apex and evening meals.
Nutrient preferences and preparations vary by region and ethnicity. For example, the Black Bounding main is noted for fish, specially anchovy, dishes, while the eastern region is noted for spicy foods. Circassians are famous for preparing chicken in a walnut sauce, while Georgian cuisine is typified by thick corn staff of life and corn soup. Lahmacun , or Armenian pizza, originated in the southeastern provinces one time occupied by Armenians.
All cities have numerous restaurants and snack stands. Many specialize in a limited number of foods, such as kebabs, soups, meat wraps made with pide (a flat staff of life), pastries, and fish. Others offering a variety of meals, including stews, pilafs, vegetables, and deserts. Inexpensive restaurants cater to workingmen, who normally swallow only breakfast and the evening meal at abode. Higher-class restaurants generally set aside a section for females and families. American fast-nutrient bondage have get popular in the large cities.
The major food taboo in Turkey is pork, which is forbidden to Muslims. Although the Koran also forbids alcoholic beverages, many Turks drink beer, wine, and liquors. Sure segments of the Muslim population regard other foods every bit taboo fifty-fifty though their religion does not prohibit them. For example, Yürüks, a formerly nomadic Turkish people, avoid all seafood with the exception of fish. Members of the Alevi sect of Islam do not consume rabbit because it menstruates. Turks in the northwestern province of Balikesir avoid snails, claiming incorrectly that the Koran forbids their consumption.
Food Customs at Formalism Occasions. Special dishes are associated with holy days and celebrations. In Gaziantep, yuvarlama (a blend of ground meat, rice, chickpeas, onions, and spices served with yogurt) is a special dish for the Feast of Ramadan at the end of the Islamic month of fasting. In some of the southern provinces the special meal for that
Line-fishing is an important facet of the Turkish economy.
feast consists of lamb kebab served with tomatoes and borek .
For the holy month of Ashure , which comes after the Banquet of Ramadan, many households prepare a pudding chosen Ashure to share with guests, friends, and neighbors. According to tradition, Ashure must contain at least fifteen unlike ingredients, such as peas, beans, almonds, cereals, rice, raisins, rosewater, pomegranate seeds, orange peels, figs, and cinnamon. Throughout much of Turkey, wedding soup, a preparation of lamb meat with os, egg, lemon juice, flour, butter, and red pepper, is served at wedding celebrations.
Turkish beverages include tea drunk throughout the solar day, thick java usually taken afterward a meal, ayran (buttermilk), boza (a fermented bulgur drink taken in the wintertime), and rakî (an aniseed-flavored brandy usually mixed with h2o). Carbonated drinks accept become pop with young people, and beer gardens in major cities have get hangouts for men.
Basic Economy. Turkey is self-sufficient in food production. Fishers, farmers, and creature husbandry workers produce a wide variety of fish, vegetables, fruits, nuts, and meat for consumers. Withal, malnutrition affects some of the urban poor and pocket-size segments of the rural population in the southeastern region.
In 1996, agriculture contributed 15 pct to the gross national product and 43.1 per centum of the labor forcefulness was engaged in agronomics. Turkey exports cereals, pulses, industrial crops, sugar, nuts, fresh and dried fruits, vegetables, olive oil, and livestock products. In the early 1990s agricultural products accounted for 15 percent of full exports. All the same, if ane includes cotton and wool, agronomics's contribution to total exports is even greater.
Since 1984, Turkey has liberalized its policy on nutrient imports. Daily products and luxury nutrient items, especially from European Marriage countries, are available in most large cities.
Most farmers produce for both domestic consumption and sale. Very few are self-sufficient. The vast majority rely on a well-established network of local and regional markets as well equally large wholesalers to sell their surplus product. They so buy food and manufactured items from the proceeds.
Land Tenure and Property. Between the 1920s and 1970, the government distributed more than three million hectares of by and large state land to landless peasants. Although no comprehensive belongings surveys have been conducted, information technology is believed that most farm families own some land. According to the data in a 1980 agricultural demography, 78 percent of farms had five hectares or less and together accounted for 60 percent of all farmland. Twenty-three percent of farms were between v and twenty hectares and accounted for 18 percent of all farmland. Fewer than iv percent exceeded a hundred hectares, but they amounted to 15 per centum of the farmland.
Less than 1-fifth of farmers lease or sharecrop the land they till. Sharecroppers generally receive half the ingather, with the remainder going to landlords, who supply seed and fertilizer. Most villages have common pastures for the residents' herd animals. In the by, southeastern Anatolia had feudal landlords who owned entire villages.
Many big farms have been converted into modern agricultural enterprises that employ machinery, irrigation, and chemical fertilizers. Such farms concentrate on high-value fruits and industrial crops and employ land-poor farmers. Since the 1950s, the mechanization of agriculture has reduced the need for farm labor, causing many villagers to migrate to the cities.
Major Industries. Turkey's economy is a mix of private and state economical enterprises (SEEs). From
A view of the aboriginal city wall surrounding the Midterranean city of Anlanya, Turkey.
the 1920s to the 1980s, the state endemic many of the major manufacturing, banking, and communications companies. Since that fourth dimension, a policy of privatization of SEEs has been followed. Currently, factories produce a wide variety of products, including processed foods, textiles and footwear, iron and steel, chemicals, cement, fertilizers, kitchen appliances, radios, and television set sets. Montage industries that utilize a combination of imported and domestic parts assemble cars, trucks, and buses equally well as aircraft.
Trade. Since the 1980s, merchandise has played an increasingly important role in the economic system. Turkey's entrance into a customs matrimony understanding with the European union (EU) in 1995 facilitated trade with European union countries. In 1997, recorded exports amounted to $26 billion (U.S.), with unrecorded exports estimated at $5.8 billion. The major export bolt were textiles and apparel (37 percent), atomic number 26 and steel products (10 pct), and foodstuffs (17 percent). The major consign partners were Germany (20 percent), the United States (eight percent), Russian federation (8 percentage), the Great britain (vi percentage), and Italia (5 pct).
Imports were valued at $46.7 billion (U.Southward.) in 1997. Import commodities included machinery (26 percent), fuels (13 percent), raw materials (10 per centum), and foodstuffs (4 percent). The primary import partners were Germany (16 percentage), Italy (9 percent), the United States (ix percent), France (6 percentage), and the U.k. (6 percent).
Sectionalisation of Labor. Most jobs are assigned on the basis of historic period, skill, pedagogy, gender, and in some cases kinship. At that place are many modest family unit-owned and -operated businesses in towns and cities. In those businesses, immature people, specially sons, are trained from an early age to operate the enterprise. Until the 1960s, many young people, especially males, learned their skills in the traditional amateur system. Today the Ministry of Education operates thousands of bones and advanced vocational and technical schools for males and females.
Turkey has numerous universities where students of both sexes study to become businesspersons, doctors, engineers, lawyers, teachers, accountants, bankers, and architects. Civil service jobs require applicants to run across educational requirements and pass a written examination.
Turkish law more often than not prohibits the employment of children under 15 years of age, except that those who are thirteen and 14 may do low-cal, part-fourth dimension piece of work if they are enrolled in school or vocational training. In practice, the children of poor families work to earn needed income. Aside from subcontract labor, underage boys piece of work in tea gardens as waiters, auto repair shops, and minor wood and metal arts and crafts industries. Underage girls generally work at dwelling house at handicrafts.
Social Stratification
Classes and Castes. The about important determinants of social status are wealth and education. The basic categories include the wealthy urban educated class, the urban middle class, the urban lower grade, the large rural landowner grade, and the full general rural population. A academy instruction is the minimum qualification for entry into the urban educated grade, in which in that location are numerous substrata.
Distinctions can be drawn between the urban upper and urban middle classes. The urban upper class includes several groups with high condition adamant by education, political influence, and wealth. Wealthy businessmen are accorded very high condition, equally are successful physicians, chiffonier ministers, and many members of the associates, directors of important authorities departments, and other loftier-level officials. Since Earth War 2, businessmen have challenged the old military–bureaucratic elite for ability and social prestige. Members of the urban upper class are generally westernized; most speak at least one Western language, are well acquainted with European or American life and civilisation, and take shut contact with the diplomatic and foreign business communities.
The urban eye class includes most civil servants, proprietors of medium-size businesses and industries, many persons in service occupations, some skilled workers, and academy students. These groups usually are less westernized than the upper grade and more than oriented to Turkish culture. The urban center class also includes virtually the unabridged upper strata of the provincial cities. There is considerable mobility within the urban educated class.
The urban lower class includes semiskilled and unskilled laborers, low-paid service workers, and the urban unemployed. The loftier charge per unit of migration of young villagers to urban areas makes this the most quickly growing form. Many migrants accept difficulty finding jobs, and others work simply seasonally. Many live in poverty in the shantytowns that ring the major cities. Urbanization continues as the rural population grows and urban industry offers better incomes.
Some 30 percent of the population are rural farmers, frequently referred to as peasants. Improved communications and transportation have brought them into closer contact with towns and cities. Educational efforts since 1923 succeeded in bringing the national literacy level upwards to 82.three percent by 1995, although the rural literacy level is lower. Some eastern rural areas are withal dominated past large landowners, traditional association heads, and religious leaders. Young villagers who migrate to towns and cities cannot observe their way into the middle form unless they receive farther instruction.
Symbols of Social Stratification. Almost men of all social classes accept adopted Western styles of dress, including trousers, shirts, and jackets. Men and women in the upper and heart urban classes pay attention to Western fashions. They also alive in high-priced apartments and try to possess Western luxury items, such as cars, electronic devices, prison cell phones, and computers. They have developed a taste for Western literature and music and attend musical events and plays. The upper form favors European-language loftier schools and universities; the centre form is more than satisfied with standard Turkish educational institutions. Both classes adopt to speak an educated Istanbul style of standard Turkish.
Ankara, Turkey is a fast-paced urban center.
Most members of the lower urban classes live in shantytowns. Only a modest proportion accept graduated from high schoolhouse ( lise ). The women tend to wear traditional conservative clothing, including head scarves and long coats, fifty-fifty in the summer. They favor Turkish and Middle Eastern music. The peasant and rural classes are the to the lowest degree exposed to Western and urban influences in clothes, styles, linguistic communication, and music. They, like the lower urban class, tend to speak Turkish with regional accents and grammatical peculiarities. The women wear conservative peasant dress consisting of baggy pantaloons and head scarves.
Political Life
Regime. The government operates under the 1982 constitution. All the constitutions (1924, 1961, and 1982) were written and adopted while armed services leaders were in control. The 1982 constitution states that "Turkey is a autonomous, secular and social State . . . loyal to the nationalism of Atatürk" (Article 2). "The Turkish State, with its territory and nation, is an indivisible entity. Its language is Turkish" (Commodity iii).
The constitution enumerates a long list of civil and political rights merely subordinates them to considerations of "national security," "national unity," and "public morality." It also allows the regime to impose emergency rule or martial law. The constitution establishes a popularly elected single-chamber national assembly with full legislative powers, a prime minister and cabinet responsible to the national assembly, and a constitutional court with the power of judicial review. It provides for a president with extensive executive powers and legislative veto authority who is elected by the assembly for a seven-yr term.
There is a broad assortment of political parties. It is illegal for parties to appeal to religion, advocate the establishment of a religious state, or merits to represent a class or ethnic group. In contempo elections, no political party has been able to win more than than 22 percent of the vote, leading to coalition governments.
Turkey is divided administratively into fourscore provinces ( iller ), which are subdivided into subprovinces ( ilçeler ), which in plow are divided into districts ( bucaklar ). A governor ( vali ) appointed by the minister of the interior heads each province and represents the land. Locally elected representative bodies at the hamlet, city, and provincial levels likewise play governing roles.
Leadership and Political Officials. Most of Turkey's political leaders have been high-ranking military officers, academy professors, or successful businessmen. Many provincial governors are onetime generals or career ceremonious servants who graduated from Ankara University's public administration plan. The military elite sees itself as the protector of the constitution and Atatürk's principles. It has formal influence over governmental matters through the National Security Council, which is equanimous of the prime number minister; the primary of the general staff; the ministers of national defence force, the interior, and foreign affairs; and the commanders of the military and the gendarmerie. This body sets national security policy.
Military leaders have been specially concerned about threats to secularism and the unity of the land and nation. In 1997, the militarily dominated National Security Council presented the prime government minister, Necmettin Erbakan, with xx demands, including closing religious lodges, enforcing laws prohibiting religious dress in public, endmost some country-supported religious schools, cooling relations with Islamic republic of iran, and curtailing the activities of religious organizations.
Citizens often petition elected officials for favors or aid. Unless they are personally acquainted with an official, they convey a petition through a friend or sponsor who knows an official, a fellow member of his or her family unit, or 1 of his or her friends.
Turkish constabulary prohibits communist and religious parties. The parties range from socialist (Autonomous Left Party), to moderately conservative and free enterprise (Motherland Party), to right-wing ultranationalistic (Nationalist Activeness Political party), to nearly-religious (Virtue Political party).
Social Issues and Command. Internal security and law enforcement are handled primarily by the national police in urban areas and the gendarmerie in rural areas. Even so, in areas under a country of emergency or martial law, the gendarmerie functions under the military. The national constabulary are armed and authoritarian in demeanor. They take been accused of treating arrested persons roughly to obtain information or confessions during incommunicado detention. The government has instituted man rights preparation for the law.
The gendarmerie maintains security exterior municipal boundaries and guards land borders against illegal entry and smuggling. Recruits are supplied through military conscription. Gendarmes have been subject field to the same criticisms every bit the national law.
Turkey abandoned Islamic constabulary and adopted the Italian penal code in 1926. Serious crimes include premeditated homicide, theft, arson, armed robbery, embezzlement of state belongings, perjury, and rape. Political speech insulting the president, the war machine, and parliament has been criminalized. The antiterror police force criminalizes written and oral propaganda, meetings, and demonstrations aimed at damaging the unity of the state.
The death sentence can exist imposed for certain crimes against the state and premeditated murder, but there have been no executions since 1984. Conviction for a serious felony tin disqualify one from holding public role, voting, and practicing certain professions.
Compared to other Centre Eastern countries, the incidence of ordinary crime is depression. The most common felonies resulting in incarceration in 1991 were crimes confronting property (viii,360), crimes against individuals (5,879), and crimes against "public decency and family order" (2,681). Every year an unknown number of people are incarcerated for illegal political activeness and thought crimes, such as advocating an Islamic state or cultural rights for an ethnic minority.
In addition to Kurdish nationalism, Turkey's security forces are concerned with narcotics trafficking, since Turkey is a road for the transfer of
Coffeehouses are male domains.
hashish from Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Iran to Europe.
War machine Activity. The Turkish military plays political, cultural, and security roles. War machine leaders created the democracy in 1923, replaced civilian governments in 1960 and 1980, and forced a civilian regime out of part in 1971. Because of universal male conscription, the war machine is a major national socialization agent for immature men of different regions, classes, and ethnicities.
Since joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation in 1952, Turkey has maintained a large armed services consisting of land forces, navy, air forcefulness, coast guard, and gendarmerie. In 1994, it had 503,800 officers and enlisted men on active duty. Defence is unremarkably the largest category in the national budget; from 1981 to 1991, information technology averaged 20 percent of full government expenditures.
Social Welfare and Change Programs
In 1998, the government estimated that 81.3 percent of the population were covered past state social security and retirement services. Employers pay insurance premiums for work-related injuries, occupational diseases, and maternity leave; employers and employees pay premiums to embrace illness, disability, retirement, and death benefits. The government also offers social security insurance to the self-employed and operates orphanages. Local associations or nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) associated with mosques and crafts also provide welfare to the needy.
Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations
One of the most important NGOs is the Regular army Common Assist Foundation (OYAK), created in 1962. Information technology controls a huge investment fund of obligatory and voluntary contributions from military personnel and investment profits. It has invested substantially in the machine, truck, tractor, and tire industries; the petrochemical, cement, and food processing industries; and retail and service enterprises. Through OYAK, the Turkish armed services became partners with foreign and domestic investors and shares their economic interests. Considering of OYAK's investments, the economic security of thousands of agile and retired war machine personnel became dependent on the profitability of large capitalistic enterprises. Consequently, armed forces corporate interests expanded into the areas of labor police, trade unionism, trade and monetary policy, corporate taxation, tariffs, investment banking, and related matters.
Other major NGOs include the Turkish Trade Association, representing the interests of merchants, industrialists, and commodity brokers; the Turkish Confederation of Employers' Unions, representing employers; and the Confederation of Turkish Trade Unions, representing labor. In addition, NGOs be for practically every interest group in crafts, sports, social issues, didactics, organized religion, and the arts.
Gender Roles and Statuses
Sectionalization of Labor past Gender. Turkish constabulary guarantees equal pay for equal piece of work and has opened practically all educational programs and occupations to women. Exceptions are the religious schools that train imams (Islamic prayer leaders) and the job of imam itself. In general, men dominate the high-condition occupations in business, the armed services, regime, the professions, and academia. According to traditional values, women should do domestic work and not work in the public arena or with unrelated men. However, women have begun to work more in public.
Lower-class women generally take worked as maids, firm cleaners, women'southward tailors, seamstresses, kid care givers, agricultural laborers, and nurses, only in the early 1990s, about 20 per centum of factory employees and many shop clerks were women. Middle-class women normally are employed as teachers and banking company tellers, while upper-class women work as doctors, lawyers, engineers, and university teachers. Only a small percent of women are politicians.
Men work in all these fields but avert the traditional nonagricultural occupations of lower-course women. Men monopolize the officer ranks in the armed services and the transportation occupations of pilot and taxi, truck, and motorbus driver. In urban areas, lower-form men work in crafts, manufacturing, and low-paid service industries. Heart-class men work as teachers, accountants, businessmen, and middle-level managers. Upper-class men piece of work as university teachers, professionals, upper-level managers, businessmen, and entrepreneurs.
Marriage, Family unit, and Kinship
Wedlock. Turks expect adults to marry and have children, and the vast majority do. Because men should non lower their wives' standard of living, they are not supposed to marry women of a college economical form. People generally marry within their own religious sect and indigenous group, although interethnic marriages among Sunni Muslims are not uncommon. In traditional Turkish society, the option of spouses and the marriage ceremony were controlled by kin groups. During the premarital process, the individuals to be married played minor roles. The rituals, particularly the imam spousal relationship ceremony, were essential for a morally and socially acceptable wedlock.
In 1926, the revolutionary Turkish government abolished Islamic family police and adopted a slightly modified version of the family constabulary in the Swiss civil code. The new Family unit Police force requires and recognizes civil spousal relationship ceremonies simply. It requires the consent of mature individuals for a binding marriage contract and prescribes monogamy just. Even though the law prohibits parents from inbound into engagement or marital agreements on behalf of their children, arranged marriages without the consent of the brides have been somewhat common. In a 1968 survey, eleven.4 per centum of women said their marriages had been arranged by their families without their consent, while 67 percent said they had had family-arranged marriages with their consent. The figures for the unconsented arranged marriages ranged from 7.seven percent for women living in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir to 11.iii pct to 12.5 percentage for women living in smaller cities, towns, and villages. An impressive 49.9 percent of the husbands surveyed said their fathers or other relatives had made the final decision about their marriages. This response category ranged from 59.1 percent for village men to 15.3 percent for men in Istanbul, Ankara, and Izmir. Today the vast majority of marriages occur with the couple's consent, but families nevertheless play a role recommending and screening potential spouses, particularly for their daughters.
Even though divorce is not considered an Islamic sin, it occurs infrequently. Divorcees, especially men with children, quickly remarry, normally to divorced women. The new code eliminated a husband'due south Islamic prerogative of verbal and unilateral divorce and prescribed a court proceeding. The police recognizes merely half-dozen grounds for divorce: infidelity; plot confronting life, grave assaults, and insults; crime or a dishonorable life; desertion; mental infirmity; and incompatibility. The evidentiary requirements are so substantial that establishing one of these grounds has proved difficult. A couple cannot divorce by mutual consent.
Domestic Unit, Inheritance, and Kin Groups. Traditionally, near Turks traced their descent and passed on belongings, specially homes and land, through the male line. Even though almost households have always independent simply one nuclear family, the ideal household, specially among the rural and urban wealthy, was patrilocal extended, in which a son and his bride lived in his parents' habitation after matrimony. The basic kinship units are the family ( aile ) and the household ( hane ). Household members unremarkably swallow together and share income and expenses. The next larger unit of measurement is the patrilineage ( sulale ), consisting of relatives continued intergenerationally by a common male ancestor. While patrilineage is important to former, noble Ottoman families and tribal peoples, it is of fiddling significance to well-nigh Turks.
The traditional Turkish household is characterized by male dominance, respect for elders, and female person subservience. The father or oldest male is the head, an authorisation figure who demands respect and obedience. The mother is also respected, but her relationship with her children is warm and informal.
Although supreme authorization ordinarily rests with the father, the household is usually mother-centered. The mother, being largely confined to the home, manages and directs its internal affairs. The division of labor has traditionally been lucent, with women having responsibility for the internal domicile, and men providing the income and representing the household to the outside world. Before the 1960s, even grocery shopping was a male duty.
In recent decades, much of this has changed. The new Family Police force grants women equal rights to private belongings and inheritance. A larger per centum of women work outside the habitation, and educated women demand more equal rights.
Socialization
Women are very protective of their children. Breast-feeding for a year or more is common. The child commonly sleeps in a hammock or crib almost the parents. Boys are socialized to be courageous, assertive, proud, and respectful of elders. When they undergo a painful circumcision ceremony between ages nine and 12, they are told to be as dauntless as lions. Girls are socialized to be modest, compliant, supportive of males, virtuous, and skilled in domestic tasks. Fathers are authoritarian disciplinarians; mothers are generally loving and nurturing.
Every woman rejoices when giving nascence to a son, because that event increases her status in the eyes of her husband, in-laws, and community. She ordinarily pampers her son, who remains close to her until age 10 or 11, afterwards which he spends nigh of his time with other males and identifies more closely with men. Mothers and daughters are especially close, as daughters usually spend much of their premarital lives close to their mothers, learning domestic skills: Generally, the father–girl relationship is rather formal, with trivial public displaying of affection. Although a daughter or son may fence or joke with the mother, they are respectful and subdued in the male parent's presence.
During prepubescence, relations between brothers and sisters are free and like shooting fish in a barrel. Later on, their statuses change as the older sibling takes on some of the rights and duties of a parent. The older sister ( abla ) becomes similar a second female parent, loved for her warmth and amore. The older brother ( agabey ) assumes the helpful but authoritarian status of a modest begetter. In extended families, grandparents, especially grandmothers, provide a expert deal of kid intendance.
School attendance is compulsory to historic period 14. The first twenty-four hour period of grade constitutes an important rite of passage. The children are dressed in blackness smocks with white collars and taken to schoolhouse with pomp and ceremony. Most families that can beget it, keep their children in school beyond age 14. Most would like to see their children, specially their sons, complete university, but this is rarely possible for poor families.
Etiquette
Formal etiquette is central to Turkish culture, governing most social interactions and the employ of infinite. Turkish civilization has an exact verbal formula for practically every occasion. Etiquette requires the pronouncement of the proper formulas for these occasions.
Strict etiquette governs intergenerational and heterosexual interactions. Unless they are close friends or relatives, older people are addressed formally. For example, older men should be addressed with the championship "Bey" (Mister) and women with the title "Hanim" (Lady). Younger people are expected to exist reserved in their presence. Adults of the opposite sex are expected not to human activity casually or show affection toward each other in public. Friends of the same sexual practice may hold easily and greet each other with kisses on the cheek. Upon meeting, men shake hands, simply a human being does non shake a woman's hand unless she extends it to him.
People are not criticized for existence belatedly. Business meetings unremarkably are preceded past tea and unrelated chat. Consideration for companions is important. One does not drink, smoke, or eat something without first offering to share it with i'due south companions.
Ninety-viii percent of Turks are nominally Muslim.
Homes are divided into guest and private areas, and information technology is improper to enquire for a tour of the house. The soles of shoes are considered dirty, and shoes are removed when one enters a home or mosque.
Faith
Religious Beliefs. Islamic tradition, ideology, and ritual are very important. Virtually 98 percent of Turkey's citizens are nominally Muslims, of whom about 80 to 85 percent are Sunnis of the Hanafi schoolhouse and 15 to 20 percent are members of Shiite sects (generally Alevi). Turkish Muslims recognize the standard Islamic creed and duties, but merely the most religious fast or make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Four percent of Turks place themselves equally atheists, and iv percent as agnostics.
For near Turks, Islam plays an of import function in rites of passage: naming shortly after birth, circumcision for boys, matrimony, and funerals. The state controls religious education and most religious personnel past supervising the schools that train Sunni imams and certifying imams equally land employees who work in community mosques.
In recent decades, a revival of fundamental Islam has been supported by about twenty percent of the population. A minor proportion of the population participates in Sufi orders and brotherhoods.
The well-nigh important events in the Turkey's Islamic agenda are Ramazan , the lunar month of fast; Kadir Gecesi (Night of Power), the twenty-seventh twenty-four hours of Ramazan , when Mohammad was appointed the messenger of Allah; Sheker Bayram a three-day national vacation at the end of Ramazan in which people exchange visits and processed; and Kurban Bayram (Feast of Sacrifice), a 4-day national holiday held during the lunar month of Hajj (Pilgrimage) to commemorate Abraham's willingness to sacrifice Isaac. As many as 2.v million sheep accept been sacrificed in Turkey on this vacation; near of the meat is shared with neighbors and donated to the poor.
Medicine and Wellness Intendance. Modernistic Western medical services accept expanded significantly over the past 2 decades. The Ministry of Health is authorized to provide medical intendance and preventive health services, train wellness personnel, found and operate hospitals and clinics, inspect private health facilities, and regulate pharmacies. In 1995, Turkey had 12,500 health facilities and a doctor for every 1,200 persons. The incidence of measles, pertussis, typhoid fever, and diphtheria has declined markedly since the 1970s. Infant bloodshed declined from 120 per one,000 in 1980 to 55 per ane,000 in 1992. In rural areas, midwives deliver nigh babies.
Most urban dwellers have access to public health facilities, but many rural citizens do non. In the countryside and among recent migrants to the cities, folk medicine is still practiced. Peasant women learn folk medicine involving herbs, spices, prayers, and rituals from their mothers and apply information technology to family members instead of or in addition to mod medicine. Traditionally, some men specialized in folk medicine as well.
Secular Celebrations
The major secular celebrations and official holidays begin with New Year's Day on 1 Jan, an adoption from the West. Many people exchange greetings cards, and some celebrate in a Western fashion. National Sovereignty Day on 23 Apr commemorates the kickoff coming together of the 1000 National Assembly. Because 23 Apr is too National Children's Day, much of the 24-hour interval is devoted to children'southward activities such as dances and music recitals. Youth and Sport Day, commemorating Atatürk'south nativity, is celebrated on xix May. Victory Day, jubilant victorious battles during Turkey'due south State of war of Independence, is observed on xxx Baronial. Commonwealth Day, 29 October, commemorates Atatürk's announcement of the republic in 1923. Both Victory Mean solar day and Republic Day are historic with patriotic parades, music, and speeches.
The Arts and Humanities
Support for the Arts. The Ministry of Culture has implemented a policy of promoting nonreligious Turkish and Western art. It provides a limited number of scholarships for the written report of art and music in Europe, particularly France. The ministry too supports the Academy of Fine Arts and art museums in the major cities. Almost artists come from the middle and upper classes in major cities. Graphic artists rely primarily on major corporations and the upper class to purchase their work. They sell through individual exhibition and a limited number of art shops. Traditional arts and crafts artists who produce ceramics, rugs and kilims, brass and copper ornaments, and embroidery have a broader marketplace for their work. Nearly sculptors rely largely on land commissions.
Literature. Until the centre of the nineteenth century, Turkish literature centered on the Ottoman court, which produced poetry and some prose. This literature represented a fusion of Persian, Standard arabic, and Turkish classical styles. Western influences were introduced in the 1860s by a group of intellectuals who attempted to combine Western cultural forms with a more than uncomplicated course of the Turkish language. This westernizing trend continued throughout the nineteenth century and became more pronounced merely earlier World War I. Subsequently 1923, the commonwealth produced an impressive number of novelists, poets, singers, musicians, and artists. Novelists who gained international fame include Halide Edib, Resat Nuri Güntekin, and, more recently, Orhan Pamuk. Several important works dealt with village life, ranging from Yakup Kadri Karaosmanoglu's Yaban ( The Stranger ) in the 1930s to Mahmut Makal'due south A Village in Anatolia , and Yasar Kemal'southward Mehmet My Hawk , which won earth recognition in 1961.
Orhan Veli generally is considered the father of modern Turkish poetry, which has been characterized by a rebellion against rigidly prescribed forms and a preoccupation with immediate perception. Some poets have experimented with obscurantist forms and ideas; many others have expressed concern for social democratic issues.
Graphic Arts. Western influence in the graphic arts began in the late Ottoman period with the founding of the Fine Arts Academy in Istanbul, which continues to exist staffed by European and European-educated Turkish artists. In the republican periods, Turkish art has involved a mixture of Western and ethnic styles. Practically all artists of note accept studied at the university or in Europe. Some have imitated European forms, while others take searched for a Turkish style and portray Turkish themes such as hamlet and urban scenes in a representational manner. Many sculptors receive state commissions to create monumental works depicting Atatürk and other patriotic themes.
Performance Arts. Foreign plays outnumber Turkish works in the theater, just theater attendance has grown in recent decades and many Turkish playwrights who combine Western techniques with Turkish social issues have had an opportunity to present their works.
Both Ankara and Istanbul have well-respected opera companies. The Presidential Symphony Orchestra gives concerts both in Ankara and on tour. Ankara and Istanbul have music conservatories that include schools of ballet. Several Turkish composers, of whom the best known is Adnan Saygun, have won acclaim in Europe and America for fusing Turkish folk themes with Western forms.
The Istanbul Music Solarium has taken steps to preserve authentic folk music past recording it in all parts of the country. Annual folk arts festivals in Istanbul present a wide variety of Turkish music and trip the light fantastic.
The State of the Physical and Social Sciences
Nigh scientific inquiry is carried out at a few universities in Ankara, Istanbul, and Izmir. The government funds two-thirds of it. The Technology Development Foundation of Turkey provides grants for industrial inquiry and development (R&D) activities, mostly in electronics, telecommunications, and environmental technologies. The Ministry of Rural Affairs and the Ministry building of Housing and Settlement provide funds for social scientific research.
Practically all Turkish leaders in the natural, social, and engineering sciences have received some educational activity away, particularly in the United States. Turkey obtains much of its engineering science for the nutrient-processing, metals, and textiles sectors from abroad. The Supreme Council for Science and Technology, the scientific discipline and technology policy-making body, sets R&D targets for high-priority activities: data, avant-garde materials, biotechnology, space, and nuclear technology.
The number of scientific researchers was estimated at 8 per ten,000 members of the labor force in 1992. Most three-quarters, or xxx,172, of those researchers were in universities; basic science (10 pct), engineering (20 pct), health scientific discipline (34 percent), agriculture (vii percent), social scientific discipline and humanities (29 percent). Turkey's simply school of social work and inquiry is at Ankara'due south Hacettepe University.
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—P AUL J. M AGNARELLA
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